Morality and Utilitarianism Essay

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that holds that an action is right if it produces, or if it tends to produce, the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people affected by the action. Otherwise the action is wrong. This cost-benefit analysis is a form of utility calculation. People in business theory use utility curves to plot the results of various actions, choosing those that maximize whatever it is that they wish to achieve. This utility approach is not foreign to most people. It is widely used in many forms of general decision making and can be applied to moral issues as well as to strictly business issues. A defense of utilitarianism as an ethical theory is that it describes what rational people actually do in making moral decisions. It explicitly formulates for them the procedures they intuitively and spontaneously use in moral reasoning. The theory renders explicit what is implicit in the ordinary moral reasoning and argumentation that we ourselves use Utilitarianism adopts a teleological approach to ethics and claims that actions are to be judged by their consequences. According to this view, actions are not good or bad in themselves. Actions take on moral value only when considered in conjunction with the effects that follow upon them. ACT AND RULE UTILITARIANISM Act utilitarianism holds that each individual action, in all its concreteness and in all its detail, is what should be subjected to the utilitarian test. Rule utilitarians hold that utility applies appropriately to classes of actions rather than to given individual actions. Thus, by looking at the general consequences of breaking contracts in the past, we can determine that breaking contracts is immoral. OBJECTIONS TO UTILITARIANISM One objection claims that utilitarianism is ungodly because it proposes utility, rather than the Bible or God, as a basis for moral judgments. A second objection frequently brought against utilitarianism is that no one has the time to calculate all the consequences of an action beforehand. A third objection to utilitarianism is that we cannot know the full results of any action, nor can we accurately weigh the different kinds of good and evil that result. The calculation is artificial and not practical. APPLYING UTILITARIANISM 1. Accurately state the action to be evaluated. 2. Identify all those who are directly and indirectly affected by the action. 3. Consider whether there is some dominant, obvious consideration that carries such importance as to outweigh other considerations. 4. Specify all the pertinent good and bad consequences of the action for those directly affected, as far into the future as appears appropriate, and imaginatively consider various possible outcomes and the likelihood of their occurring. 5. Weigh the total good results against the total bad results, considering quantity, duration, propinquity or remoteness, fecundity, and purity for each value (kind of good and kind of bad), and the relative importance of these values. 6. Carry out a similar analysis, if necessary, for those indirectly affected, as well as for society as a whole. 7. Sum up all the good and bad consequences. If the action produces more good than bad, the action is morally right; if it produces more bad than good, it is morally wrong. 8. Consider, imaginatively, whether there are various alternatives other than simply doing or not doing the action, and carry out a similar analysis for each of the other alternative actions. 9. Compare the results of the various actions. The action that produces the most good (or the least bad, if none produces more good than bad) among those available is the morally proper action to perform UTILITARIANISM AND BRIBERY Bribery in business is an interesting kind of action to examine from a utilitarian point of view, because those who engage in bribery frequently justify their actions based on something similar to utilitarian grounds. Utilitarianism, far from being a self-serving approach to moral issues, demands careful, objective, and impartial evaluation of consequences. It is a widely used—but often misused—approach to moral evaluation. A powerful tool of moral reasoning, it is a technique well worth mastering. CASE SUMMARIES An Airplane Manufacturing Case An airplane manufacturer has spent a great deal of money developing a new airplane. The company badly needs cash because it is financially overextended. If it does not get some large orders soon, it will have to close down part of its operation. Doing that will put several thousand workers out of jobs. The president of the company bribes a foreign minister to insure the purchase of the planes, arguing that the good done overall justifies the use of bribery.

Refutation Definition and Examples

Refutation Definition and Examples In rhetoric, refutation is the part of an argument in which a speaker or writer counters opposing points of view. Also called  confutation. Refutation is the key element in debate, say the authors of The Debaters Guide   (2011). Refutation makes the whole process exciting by relating ideas and arguments from one team to those of the other (The Debaters Guide, 2011). In speeches, refutation and confirmation are often presented conjointly with one another (in the words of the unknown author of Ad Herrenium): support for a claim (confirmation) can be enhanced by a challenge to the validity of an opposing claim (refutation). In classical rhetoric, refutation was one of the rhetorical exercises known as the  progymnasmata. Examples and Observations Refutation is the part of an essay that disproves the opposing arguments. It is always necessary in a persuasive paper to refute or answer those arguments. A good method for formulating your refutation is to put yourself in the place of your readers, imagining what their objections might be. In the exploration of the issues connected with your subject, you may have encountered possible opposing viewpoints in discussions with classmates or friends. In the refutation, you refute those arguments by proving the opposing basic proposition untrue or showing the reasons to be invalid...In general, there is a question about whether the refutation should come before or after the proof. The arrangement will differ according to the particular subject and the number and strength of the opposing arguments. If the opposing arguments are strong and widely held, they should be answered at the beginning. In this case, the refutation becomes a large part of the proof . . .. At other times when the opp osing arguments are weak, the refutation will play only a minor part in the overall proof. -Winifred Bryan Horner, Rhetoric in the Classical Tradition. St. Martins, 1988 Indirect and Direct Refutation Debaters refute through an indirect means when they use counter-argument to attack the case of an opponent. Counter-argument is the demonstration of such a high degree of probability for your conclusions that the opposing view loses its probability and is rejected...Direct refutation attacks the arguments of the opponent with no reference to the constructive development of an opposing view...The most effective refutation, as you can probably guess, is a combination of the two methods so that the strengths of the attack come from both the destruction of the opponents views and the construction of an opposing view. -Jon M. Ericson, James J. Murphy, and Raymond Bud Zeuschner,  The Debaters Guide, 4th ed. Southern Illinois University Press, 2011An effective refutation must speak directly to an opposing argument. Often writers or speakers will claim to be refuting the opposition, but rather than doing so directly, will simply make another argument supporting their own side. This is a fo rm of the fallacy of irrelevance through evading the issue. -Donald Lazere,  Reading and Writing for Civic Literacy: The Critical Citizens Guide to  Argumentative Rhetoric. Taylor Francis, 2009 Cicero on Confirmation and Refutation [T]he statement of the case . . . must clearly point out the question at issue. Then must be conjointly built up the great bulwarks of your cause, by fortifying your own position, and weakening that of your opponent; for there is only one effectual method of vindicating your own cause, and that includes both the confirmation and refutation. You cannot refute the opposite statements without establishing your own; nor can you, on the other hand, establish your own statements without refuting the opposite; their union is demanded by their nature, their object, and their mode of treatment. The whole speech is, in most cases, brought to a conclusion by some amplification of the different points, or by exciting or mollifying the judges; and every aid must be gathered from the preceding, but more especially from the concluding parts of the address, to act as powerfully as possible upon their minds, and make them zealous converts to your cause. -Cicero, De Oratore, 55 BC Richard Whately on Refutation Refutation of Objections should generally be placed in the midst of the Argument; but nearer the beginning than the end. If indeed very strong objections have obtained much currency, or have been just stated by an opponent, so that what is asserted is likely to be regarded as paradoxical, it may be advisable to begin with a Refutation. -Richard Whately, Elements of Rhetoric, 1846)​ FCC Chairman William Kennards Refutation There will be those who say Go slow. Dont upset the status quo. No doubt we will hear this from competitors who perceive that they have an advantage today and want regulation to protect their advantage. Or we will hear from those who are behind in the race to compete and want to slow down deployment for their own self-interest. Or we will hear from those that just want to resist changing the status quo for no other reason than change brings less certainty than the status quo. They will resist change for that reason alone. So we may well hear from a whole chorus of naysayers. And to all of them, I have only one response: we cannot afford to wait. We cannot afford to let the homes and schools and businesses throughout America wait. Not when we have seen the future. We have seen what high capacity broadband can do for education and for our economy. We must act today to create an environment where all competitors have a fair shot at bringing high capacity bandwidth to consumers- especial ly residential consumers. And especially residential consumers in rural and underserved areas. -William Kennard, Chairman of the FCC, July 27, 1998 Etymology: From the Old English, beat Pronunciation: REF-yoo-TAY-shun

Overnight Success

Overnight Success â€Å"One press account said I was an overnight success. I thought that was the longest night Ive ever spent.†Ã‚   – Sandra Cisneros Lannan Literary Award for Fiction MacArthur Fellowship American Book Awards Anisfield-Wolf Book Award Im not whats considered a huge, box-office or New York Times Bestseller success, but I do fairly well for myself as a writer and novelist. Ive found a comfort zone in balancing my craft, business, and family. Every so often, someone whos just discovered me asks how I became successful. I can give them the twenty-year version with all its twists, turns, sidesteps and walls, or the blurb about being diligent and ever trying to improve. Someone invariably says I was lucky. Someone will tell me FundsforWriters opened doors for my books, which the average person doesnt have. Some wonder who I knew who gave me a leg up. Some say I must be healthy, not have family problems, or not have to really work outside writing to pay the bills. So many think what I have cannot be achieved And I completely disagree. When writers begin writing, they are accountable to no one but themselves, writing in secret. When they begin publishing, they earn some small degree of spotlight but it will at some time feel its not worth the effort. When they publish regularly, readers suddenly learn their name. Those writers are new blips on readers radar, and No writer is an overnight success. Discovery helps to a certain degree: discovery So when you are tempted to say someone was an overnight success, check yourself. Its almost disrespectful. Writers, as well as entrepreneurs, actors, athletes, and academics, travel a long road to reach success. And you are not excluded from that potential for yourself. Take count of your efforts in the year going out, then project how to improve them in the new. Sometimes thats all it takes . . . the acceptance that every foot in front of the other needs to be uphill, with each year a stronger, more focused journey than the one before. The beginning of overnight success.

Sample Letter of Recommendation for an Internal Promotion

Sample Letter of Recommendation for an Internal Promotion SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Beyond helping someone get an initial hire, recommendation letters can also go a long way toward assisting someone with an internal promotion. If the promotion involves moving into a position of leadership, then a great rec letter from a supervisor or colleague can be useful in showing that the candidate's ready to move up. In this sample reference, a supervisor recommends that a Customer Experience Advisor at a glasses company move into the position of Team Lead. Read on to see how the supervisor frames her letter. Sample Letter #5: Written by a Supervisor for an Internal Promotion Zachary ParkerDirector of Customer RelationsLark Lenses102 Charles St.Boston, MA 02114 Dear Zachary Parker, It’s my pleasure to provide this recommendation for Alex as she pursues the Customer Experience Team Lead position with Lark Lenses. As her supervisor on the customer service team for the past three years, I’ve worked closely with Alex on a day-to-day basis. I'm confident that Alex is ready to transition into a leadership position. Please allow me to give three examples of Alex’s qualifications for this promotion. First, Alex embodies our â€Å"customer-centric† philosophy and delivers an extraordinary shopping and ownership experience to our clients. She has impressed me with her warmth, wisdom, and kindness online, over the phone, and in person. A few months ago, for example, she spent an hour consoling a woman who was going through a tough time. The customer has since bought several glasses from us and referred friends and family members who have done the same. Alex builds strong relationships with customers and strengthens our business in the long term. Outstanding support is a cornerstone of our business model, and Alex consistently provides that service as a Customer Experience Advisor. Second, Alex has an in-depth knowledge of our products and operating procedures. After three years on the support team, she’s dealt with a variety of issues and understands the day-to-day operations and big picture aims of our business. She can solve problems fast and has introduced several new initiatives for improvement. Recently, she began working on a new framework to facilitate communication between the support team and the product team. Alex is improving the delivery of case notes from support representatives to product designers. She uses her in-depth knowledge to drive innovation. Third, Alex has shown leadership skills throughout her time with Lark Lenses. Her colleagues recognize her as an expert in all things support, and they often go to her with questions. In the past year, she’s helped with the onboarding of several new employees, assisting with training and checking in weekly to discuss their progress. Since new employee onboarding will be a large part of her role as Customer Experience Team Lead, Alex has already proven her capability in this arena. I know that she has her colleagues’ support in stepping into the role of team leader. Alex has proven her expertise in customer relations time and time again, and she is ready to move into a position of team leadership. She is capable, confident, and committed to our mission of extraordinary support. I look forward to seeing her in the position of Customer Experience Team Lead with Lark Lenses. Thank you very much. Please feel free to get in touch with any questions. Sincerely, Lucie WarbyCustomer Experience ManagerLark Lenseslwarby@larklenses.com617-729-5555 // Based on this letter, Alex sounds like the kind of warm, understanding person who wouldn't judge you if you were shopping for eyeglasses for your dog. Recommendation Letter 5: The Breakdown While you may write a letter for someone seeking external employment, you might also get tasked with producing a letter in support of an employee seeking an internal promotion. In this case, you should focus on why the candidate is the right person to move up in the company. How has she proven her capabilities in terms of both her professional skills and connections with her coworkers? In this letter, Lucie Warby expresses her support for Alex’s promotion from Customer Experience Adviser to Customer Experience Team Lead. She focuses on three main strengths: Alex’s customer service, her knowledge and innovative ideas, and her leadership skills among her colleagues. Lucie discusses Alex’s success as a support representative and the reasons she’s ready to move into a position of leadership. To give a few specifics, Lucie mentions Alex’s supportive conversation with a distraught customer. She also talks about her project to deliver case notes from the support team to the design team. // Finally, Lucie mentions how Alex has helped train new employees, a responsibility that would be a large part of her job as team lead. From Lucie’s portrayal, it’s clear that Alex has already started to move beyond the parameters of her current job and take on a leadership role. As a supervisor within the same company, Lucie’s high opinion of Alex’s work would hold a lot of weight. She knows the company and can speak realistically to Alex’s fit with the new position. By stating that Alex already has the support of her team, Lucie further proves that Alex could be the right choice for Customer Experience Team Lead. This letter uses strong, positive language and specific examples to support Alex as she applies for an internal promotion with Lark Lenses. What's Next? Ready for another sample? Check out this letter written by a supervisor for a student intern! // Are you looking for even more samples of recommendation letters for jobs? Head over to our main article for eight more samples and tips on how to write great reference letters. Want to provide a strong recommendation for your employee, but don't have the time to craft the perfect letter? PrepScholar's new recommendation tool, SimpleRec, takes you from good intentions and a blank page to a fully written and formatted letter of recommendation in under 5 minutes. All you need to do is give us some simple pieces of information about your employee and your experience working with them, and we'll do the rest. Try out SimpleRec risk-free today:

Foundation Early childhood studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Foundation Early childhood studies - Essay Example This research paper explores how factors such as family networks and social support, parent-child relationships, poverty, housing and the safety of the environment influences a child’s (0-6 years) early experiences and the consequences they have on the later well-being and health of that child. The main early childhood practices entail a baby’s brain development journey. Extensive researches on brain development demonstrate there is a close connection of the brain to emotional, social, and physical growth of individuals (EYFS, 2014). Thus, if such primary abilities are not initiated at early ages, they would effect a child’s learning capacity and advancing in education. Thus, all this initiation should be invoked from a health perspective because the well-being of the child would depend on the health status of the child. The health of young children aged (0-6 years) is essential to the overall development, school readiness, and well-being of children to avoid such instances as; higher rates of absenteeism in preschool, serious illness, emotional and physical distress, and even long-term disability (Crosson-tower, 2005). Provision of high-quality care in the early ages of development has a lasting implication on the child’s learning and development. Research shows that children experience faster growth in their first 3-years study than any other period in their later years. Therefore, if the children receive high quality care during these years they will tend to achieve higher results in school as well as develop better skills, which are necessary for future long learning (Barlow and Calam, 2011). Moreover, recent research articulates that the first five years of a child’s life influences and are important for the development of a child’s brain while the first three years are imperative for the development of the child’s brain architecture. Therefore, it is evident that the early 0-6 years are

TOYOTA ASSIGNMENT Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

TOYOTA - Assignment Example Such segmentation will thus more closely match particular needs of this specific group of sexual orientation. The segmentation will thus enable even those who are still hesitant to declare the homosexual orientation and hence a need for market strategy based on this group as their needs cannot be satisfied through regular markets. The needs of this particular group will be met as marketers get to understand the exact needs of sexually oriented individuals and target marketing strategy at a specific group (Hondagneu-Sotelo 23). In addition, it would be much easier and successful to establish and promote specific and customized products and services to sexually oriented group. There may be no customized products as only particular group is served and not individuals. In addition, some may argue that sexual orientation marketing will promote immorality and thus it might be faced with difficulties from those opposing sexual orientation

Hedonic Method in the Consumer Price Index Case Study

Hedonic Method in the Consumer Price Index - Case Study Example The thus, Hedonic Pricing model will mostly be used in estimating the extent each of the factors affects the price. Â  The hedonic method is used in tracking changes in the CPI so that quality adjustments to the CPI can be made. The purpose of the Consumer Price Index is measuring effects on consumer household by price changes. The preferred method that is used to make quality adjustments is the Hedonic method. This is because it relies on statistical techniques when it estimates implicit prices of characteristics of a product derived from quantities and prices in the marketplace. This implicit price is used to measure the value of qualitative differences observed in products by consumers (Bade, & Michael, 2002). This helps disaggregate observed price difference between two products into pure price change and changes in quality. Hedonic methods have gone on to be proposed to be used in other categories of goods and services in the Consumer Price Index. Â  The statistical techniques involved in the hedonic methods make it suitable for use in tracking even the minimal changes in the CPI. Changes like those in quality are at times overlooked but by use if this method they are tracked and adjusted.